Division of Herod’s Kingdom

Herod the Great’s death in 4 BC marked a pivotal moment in Judean history, as his kingdom was divided among his surviving sons, leading to distinct political and cultural developments in each region. Below, I provide a detailed explanation of Herod’s death, the division of his kingdom, the unique features of each son’s rule, and their biblical significance. I draw primarily on the accounts of Flavius Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews and Wars of the Jews), supplemented by biblical references and scholarly insights, to offer a comprehensive and detailed analysis without word count restrictions.

Herod’s Death

Herod the Great died in early 4 BC, likely in March or April, at his winter palace in Jericho, aged approximately 69. His death followed a period of severe physical and mental decline. Josephus (Antiquities 17.6.1; Wars 1.33.5) describes Herod suffering from a debilitating illness, possibly Fournier’s gangrene or a cancer-related condition, characterized by gangrene, ulcers, convulsions, intense pain, and breathing difficulties. His mental instability, exacerbated by paranoia, led to erratic behavior, including the execution of his son Antipater just days before his death and orders (unfulfilled) to kill prominent Jewish leaders to ensure mourning at his passing (Antiquities 17.6.5). Herod was buried at Herodium, a fortress-palace he built, with his tomb rediscovered in 2007.

Herod’s death occurred shortly after a lunar eclipse in 4 BC, which Josephus mentions (Antiquities 17.6.4), helping scholars date the event. This timing is significant for biblical chronology, as it places Jesus’ birth (per Matthew 2:1) before 4 BC, likely between 6–4 BC, given Herod’s role in the “Massacre of the Innocents” (Matthew 2:16-18).

Division of Herod’s Kingdom

Herod’s kingdom, which at its peak included Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Idumea, Perea, and parts of modern-day Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria (e.g., Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis, and Panias), was too vast and volatile for a single successor. Due to his paranoia and family rivalries, Herod revised his will multiple times, executing three potential heirs—Antipater, Alexander, and Aristobulus—before settling on a division among three surviving sons: Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip. His sister Salome I also received a portion. The division required approval from the Roman emperor Augustus, as Judea was a client kingdom under Roman oversight.

In his final will, ratified by Augustus in 4 BC with modifications (Antiquities 17.8.1; Wars 1.33.7), the kingdom was split as follows:

1. Archelaus: Received Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, with the title of ethnarch (not king, as Augustus withheld full kingship).
2. Herod Antipas: Received Galilee and Perea, with the title of tetrarch.
3. Herod Philip: Received Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, and Panias (northern and eastern territories), also as a tetrarch.
4. Salome I: Granted a toparchy including the cities of Jabneh (Jamnia), Ashdod (Azotus), and Phasaelis, along with 500,000 silver drachmas and income from her estates.

Augustus placed several cities (e.g., Gaza, Gadara, and Hippus) under the Roman province of Syria, reducing the scope of Herod’s successors’ authority. This fragmentation reflected Rome’s strategy to prevent a unified Jewish kingdom that could challenge imperial control, while rewarding Herod’s sons for their father’s loyalty.

Below, I detail each son’s rule, its unique features, and their biblical significance.

1. Herod Archelaus (Ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, 4 BC–6 AD)

Territory and Rule

1. Territory: Archelaus inherited the core of Herod’s kingdom, including Judea (with Jerusalem and the Second Temple), Samaria, and Idumea (southern Judea). This region was the political and religious heart of Jewish life, encompassing major cities like Jerusalem, Jericho, and Sebaste.
2. Title: Augustus granted Archelaus the title of ethnarch (“ruler of the people”) rather than king, with the promise of kingship if he proved competent (Antiquities 17.8.1). This reflected Rome’s caution about centralizing power in Judea.
3. Duration: Archelaus ruled from 4 BC until his deposition in 6 AD, approximately 10 years.

Unique Features of His Rule

1. Turbulent Start:
2. Archelaus faced immediate challenges upon Herod’s death. A Jewish uprising in Jerusalem, sparked by demands to remove Herod’s golden eagle from the temple and release political prisoners, escalated during Passover (Antiquities17.9.3). Archelaus sent troops to quell the riot, resulting in the deaths of approximately 3,000 people, an act that alienated his subjects and set a tone of mistrust.
3. To secure his position, Archelaus traveled to Rome to have Augustus confirm his rule, but a Jewish delegation and his brother Antipas opposed him, arguing he was unfit (Antiquities 17.11.1-2). Augustus upheld Herod’s will but limited Archelaus’ authority.
4. Repressive Governance:
5. Archelaus was known for his harsh and incompetent rule. Josephus describes him as lacking his father’s diplomatic finesse, ruling with “tyrannical” tendencies (Antiquities 17.13.2). His heavy-handed approach exacerbated tensions with the Jewish population and Samaritans.
6. He made controversial decisions, such as deposing high priests (e.g., replacing Joazar with Eleazar), which angered religious leaders.
7. Deposition and Exile:
8. By 6 AD, complaints from Jews and Samaritans about Archelaus’ cruelty and mismanagement reached Augustus. A Jewish delegation accused him of “barbarous and tyrannical” behavior (Antiquities 17.13.2). Augustus summoned Archelaus to Rome, deposed him, and exiled him to Vienne in Gaul (modern-day France), where he died around 18 AD.
9. His territory was annexed as the Roman province of Judea, governed by a prefect (e.g., Pontius Pilate, 26–36 AD), marking the end of Herodian rule in Judea until Agrippa I’s brief reign (41–44 AD).
10. Cultural and Religious Policies:
11. Archelaus continued his father’s policy of balancing Jewish and Roman interests but lacked Herod’s skill. He maintained the temple’s operations but faced resistance from religious groups like the Pharisees, who opposed his secular tendencies.
12. His marriage to Glaphyra, widow of his half-brother Alexander, caused a scandal, as it violated Jewish law (Leviticus 18:16) since Glaphyra had children from her previous marriage (Antiquities 17.13.1).

Biblical Significance

1. Matthew 2:22: Archelaus is mentioned in the New Testament in connection with the return of Joseph, Mary, and Jesus from Egypt after Herod’s death. Fearing Archelaus’ rule in Judea, Joseph settled in Galilee under Antipas’ jurisdiction, in Nazareth. This reflects Archelaus’ reputation for harshness, which deterred the Holy Family from returning to Bethlehem.
2. Context for Jesus’ Early Life: Archelaus’ brief and turbulent rule set the stage for Roman direct governance in Judea, creating the political environment of Jesus’ childhood and ministry. The transition to a Roman prefecture increased Jewish resentment, fostering movements like the Zealots, which influenced the religious and political climate of the Gospels.

Legacy

Archelaus’ incompetence and deposition marked a low point for Herodian rule. His failure to maintain stability in Judea led to direct Roman control, which intensified Jewish-Roman tensions and set the stage for the First Jewish-Roman War (66–70 AD). His exile also weakened the Herodian dynasty’s influence in Judea until Agrippa I’s restoration.

2. Herod Antipas (Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, 4 BC–39 AD)

Territory and Rule

1. Territory: Antipas governed Galilee (northern Israel, including Nazareth and Capernaum) and Perea (east of the Jordan River, near modern-day Jordan). These regions were less religiously significant than Judea but economically vital due to trade routes and agriculture.
2. Title: Tetrarch (“ruler of a fourth”), a subordinate title reflecting his smaller domain compared to Archelaus.
3. Duration: Antipas ruled for 43 years, from 4 BC to 39 AD, making him the longest-reigning of Herod’s sons.

Unique Features of His Rule

1. Stable and Pragmatic Governance:
2. Unlike Archelaus, Antipas was a relatively capable administrator, maintaining stability in Galilee and Perea for over four decades. He inherited his father’s diplomatic skill, balancing Roman interests with local needs.
3. He founded the city of Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee (c. 20 AD), named after Emperor Tiberius, as a new capital. The city, built on a cemetery, initially faced Jewish criticism for ritual impurity but became a prosperous Hellenistic-Jewish center (Antiquities 18.2.3).
4. Economic and Cultural Development:
5. Antipas promoted trade and infrastructure, leveraging Galilee’s fertile lands and Perea’s strategic position. He rebuilt Sepphoris, a major Galilean city, after its destruction in a revolt following Herod’s death.
6. His rule blended Jewish and Hellenistic elements, evident in Tiberias’ Greco-Roman architecture and his issuance of aniconic coins to respect Jewish sensitivities.
7. Conflicts and Controversies:
8. Marriage to Herodias: Antipas’ most infamous act was divorcing his first wife, a Nabataean princess (daughter of King Aretas IV), to marry Herodias, the widow of his half-brother Herod (possibly Herod Philip, not the tetrarch). This marriage violated Jewish law (Leviticus 18:16) and provoked political fallout, as Aretas IV retaliated with a military defeat of Antipas’ forces in 36 AD (Antiquities 18.5.1).
9. Execution of John the Baptist: Antipas imprisoned and executed John the Baptist, who publicly criticized his marriage to Herodias (Mark 6:17-29; Antiquities 18.5.2). Herodias’ daughter, Salome, famously requested John’s head after dancing for Antipas.
10. Deposition and Exile:
11. Antipas’ downfall came in 39 AD, driven by ambition and family rivalry. Encouraged by Herodias, he sought the title of king from Emperor Caligula, hoping to match his nephew Agrippa I’s status (Antiquities 18.7.2). Agrippa I accused Antipas of conspiring with the Parthians and stockpiling weapons, charges that Caligula believed. Antipas was deposed, exiled to Lugdunum (Lyon, Gaul), and his territories were granted to Agrippa I. Herodias voluntarily joined him in exile.

Biblical Significance

1. John the Baptist’s Execution (Matthew 14:3-12; Mark 6:17-29; Luke 3:19-20): Antipas is central to the story of John the Baptist’s death. John’s condemnation of Antipas’ marriage to Herodias reflects the prophet’s role as a moral voice against Herodian moral lapses, foreshadowing Jesus’ own confrontations with authority.
2. Jesus’ Trial (Luke 23:6-12): During Jesus’ trial, Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judea, sent Jesus to Antipas, who was in Jerusalem for Passover, as Jesus was a Galilean (Antiquities 18.4.3). Antipas mocked Jesus but found no grounds for execution, returning him to Pilate. This episode highlights Antipas’ limited authority under Roman rule and his role in the Passion narrative.
3. Galilee as Jesus’ Ministry Base: Galilee, under Antipas’ rule, was the primary setting for Jesus’ ministry (e.g., Nazareth, Capernaum). Antipas’ relatively stable governance allowed for the spread of Jesus’ teachings, but his Hellenistic policies may have fueled the social tensions that Jesus addressed.

Legacy

Antipas’ long rule brought stability to Galilee and Perea, fostering economic growth and urban development. However, his moral scandals (e.g., marriage to Herodias) and political missteps led to his exile. His biblical role underscores the tension between Herodian rulers and Jewish religious figures, setting the stage for the early Christian movement.

3. Herod Philip (Tetrarch of Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis, Auranitis, and Panias, 4 BC–34 AD)

Territory and Rule

1. Territory: Philip governed the northern and eastern territories of Herod’s kingdom, including Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis (modern Golan Heights), Auranitis, and Panias (Caesarea Philippi). These regions were largely non-Jewish, populated by Gentiles, Syrians, and Arabs, with a smaller Jewish presence.
2. Title: Tetrarch, reflecting his subordinate status.
3. Duration: Philip ruled from 4 BC until his death in 34 AD, approximately 38 years.

Unique Features of His Rule

1. Stable and Benevolent Governance:
2. Philip was the most stable and least controversial of Herod’s sons. Josephus praises his moderation and justice, noting that he remained in his territory, resolving disputes personally and maintaining peace (Antiquities 18.4.6).
3. His region’s diverse population required a lighter touch than Judea’s religiously charged environment, and Philip excelled at maintaining order without major uprisings.
4. Urban Development:
5. Philip founded two significant cities:
6. Caesarea Philippi (Panias), named after Augustus and himself, became a cultural and administrative center with a temple to Augustus, reflecting Hellenistic influence (Antiquities 18.2.1).
7. Bethsaida Julias, near the Sea of Galilee, was upgraded from a village to a city in honor of Julia, Augustus’ daughter.
8. These projects enhanced trade and solidified Roman loyalty, though they catered to the region’s Gentile majority.
9. Marriage to Salome:
10. Philip married Salome, the daughter of Herodias and stepdaughter of Herod Antipas, known for her role in John the Baptist’s execution. This marriage, late in Philip’s life, produced no children, and Salome inherited his wealth upon his death (Antiquities 18.5.4).
11. Death and Succession:
12. Philip died in 34 AD without heirs. His territories were briefly annexed to the Roman province of Syria before being granted to Agrippa I in 37 AD by Caligula (Antiquities 18.6.10).

Biblical Significance

1. Caesarea Philippi (Matthew 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30): Philip’s capital, Caesarea Philippi, is the setting for a pivotal moment in Jesus’ ministry, where Peter declares Jesus as “the Christ, the Son of the living God.” Jesus’ affirmation of Peter and his promise to build the church “on this rock” occurred in Philip’s territory, highlighting its role in early Christianity.
2. Minimal Direct Involvement: Unlike Antipas, Philip has no direct role in the Gospels, likely due to his region’s distance from Judea and Galilee and its Gentile character. His stable rule indirectly provided a peaceful backdrop for Jesus’ activities in nearby Galilee.

Legacy

Philip’s reign was marked by tranquility and effective administration, contrasting with his brothers’ tumultuous rules. His focus on Gentile regions and lack of major scandals made him a minor figure in Jewish history but significant for his contributions to urban development and the stability of Rome’s eastern frontier. His territory’s integration into Agrippa I’s kingdom prolonged Herodian influence.

Salome I’s Role

While not a son, Herod’s sister Salome I received a toparchy (Jabneh, Ashdod, Phasaelis) and significant wealth. She played a key role in Herod’s court, fueling family intrigues (e.g., Mariamne I’s execution) and outlived her brothers, dying around 10 AD. Her properties passed to Julia, Augustus’ daughter, after her death (Antiquities 18.5.4). Salome has no direct biblical significance but indirectly shaped Herodian politics through her influence on Herod’s decisions.

Biblical and Historical Context

The division of Herod’s kingdom fragmented Jewish political unity, aligning with Rome’s strategy to weaken potential threats. Each son’s rule reflected distinct challenges:

1. Archelaus’ Failure: His harsh rule and deposition led to direct Roman governance, increasing Jewish unrest and setting the stage for messianic expectations and revolts, which influenced the context of Jesus’ ministry.
2. Antipas’ Longevity: His stable but morally controversial rule intersected directly with early Christianity through John the Baptist and Jesus, highlighting tensions between Herodian rulers and religious reformers.
3. Philip’s Stability: His peaceful governance of Gentile regions provided a backdrop for key moments in Jesus’ ministry, particularly at Caesarea Philippi.

The Herodian dynasty’s fragmentation weakened Jewish autonomy, paving the way for Roman prefects and the eventual destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD. The biblical significance of Herod’s sons lies in their roles as transitional figures between Jewish self-rule and Roman domination, shaping the socio-political environment of the New Testament.

Conclusion

Herod the Great’s death in 4 BC led to the division of his kingdom among Archelaus (Judea, Samaria, Idumea), Antipas (Galilee, Perea), and Philip (northern territories), with Salome I receiving a toparchy. Archelaus’ tyrannical rule ended in exile, ushering in Roman prefects; Antipas’ long reign intersected with John the Baptist and Jesus but ended in disgrace; and Philip’s stable governance left a minor but positive legacy. Their biblical significance lies in their roles in the Gospels, reflecting the complex interplay of Jewish identity, Roman authority, and early Christian developments. The division marked the decline of Herodian power, setting the stage for Judea’s transformation under Roman rule.

Biography of Herod the Great: Early Life and Background

Herod the Great, born around 73 BC in Idumea (southern Judea), was a pivotal figure in the history of Judea, known for his ambitious building projects, political acumen, and controversial reign as a Roman client king. His life was marked by a delicate balancing act between his Jewish subjects, Roman overlords, and personal ambitions, set against a backdrop of family intrigue and brutal acts of power consolidation.

Herod was the second son of Antipater the Idumean and Cypros, a Nabataean princess from Petra (modern-day Jordan). His father, Antipater, was an Edomite (Idumean), a Semitic people who had been forcibly converted to Judaism by the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus I in the 2nd century BC. This conversion made Herod’s family nominally Jewish, but many native Jews viewed them as outsiders due to their Edomite origins and questionable adherence to Jewish law. Cypros, his mother, came from the wealthy and influential Nabataean kingdom, connecting Herod to Arab lineage. This dual heritage—Edomite and Nabataean—shaped Herod’s identity as a “half-Jew,” a status that fueled distrust among his Jewish subjects despite his claims to practice Judaism.

Herod had three brothers—Phasael, Joseph, and Pheroras—and one sister, Salome I. The family was aristocratic, with Antipater holding significant influence under the Hasmonean king Hyrcanus II. Two of Herod’s siblings, Joseph and Salome, bore Jewish names, reflecting the family’s attempt to align with Jewish identity. As a young man, Herod was described by Josephus as athletic, agile, tall, and strong, trained in soldierly pursuits, hunting, and horsemanship, befitting his elite status. An Essene prophet, Manaemos, reportedly predicted Herod’s future kingship during his youth, a prophecy that may have influenced his ambition.

Rise to Power

Herod’s political career began under his father’s patronage. Antipater, a skilled opportunist, aligned himself with Rome after Pompey’s conquest of Judea in 63 BC, securing Roman citizenship and the title of procurator of Judea from Julius Caesar in 47 BC. That same year, Antipater appointed the 26-year-old Herod as governor of Galilee, where he quickly demonstrated his administrative and military prowess by suppressing bandits and asserting control.

In 43 BC, Antipater was poisoned, likely due to political rivalries, leaving Herod and his brothers to navigate a turbulent Judea. The Hasmonean king Antigonus II Mattathias, backed by the Parthians (Rome’s eastern rivals), seized Jerusalem in 40 BC, forcing Herod to flee to Rome. There, he leveraged his family’s Roman connections, particularly with Mark Antony, to secure the Roman Senate’s nomination as “King of the Jews” in 40 BC. With Roman military support, Herod returned to Judea and, after a three-year campaign, captured Jerusalem in 37 BC, deposing Antigonus and solidifying his rule.

Herod’s alliance with Rome was tested during the Roman civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian (later Augustus). Initially loyal to Antony, Herod deftly switched allegiance to Octavian after Antony’s defeat at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In a bold meeting at Rhodes, Herod removed his crown, confessed his loyalty to Antony, and pledged even greater fidelity to Octavian. Impressed by his candor, Octavian confirmed Herod’s kingship, cementing a relationship that brought stability and territorial expansion to Judea.

Reign and Territory Controlled

Herod ruled Judea as a Roman client king from 37 BC until his death in 4 BC, overseeing a kingdom that, at its peak, was one of the most prosperous and expansive in the region. His reign was characterized by significant infrastructure development, diplomatic maneuvering, and internal challenges due to his non-Jewish origins and authoritarian methods.

Territorial Extent

Herod’s kingdom initially encompassed Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, but it expanded significantly through Roman grants:

• Core Territories (37 BC): Judea (including Jerusalem), Samaria, Idumea, and Galilee.

• 22–20 BC: Augustus expanded Herod’s domain to include parts of modern-day Jordan (east of the Jordan River), southern Lebanon, and Syria, such as Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis, and Panias. Herod was also granted oversight of the copper mines in Cyprus, receiving half the profits.

• Failed Ambitions: Herod hoped to acquire the Nabataean kingdom, but his deteriorating health and mental instability in later years made this impossible.

• Strategic Fortresses: To secure his realm, Herod built or reinforced fortresses like Masada, Herodium, Machaerus, Hyrcania, Cypros, Alexandrium, and Jericho, which served as defensive strongholds and symbols of his power.

By 20 BC, Herod’s kingdom rivaled the Hasmonean state at its height, covering most of modern Israel, parts of Jordan, and southern Lebanon and Syria. His control of these diverse regions required balancing the needs of Jewish, Samaritan, and non-Jewish populations, a task he managed through a blend of diplomacy, repression, and cultural patronage.

Major Achievements

Herod’s reign is renowned for its architectural and economic contributions:

• Rebuilding the Second Temple: Starting around 20–19 BC, Herod transformed Zerubbabel’s modest Second Temple into a magnificent complex, expanding the Temple Mount with massive retaining walls (including the Western Wall) and adding ornate courtyards, gold and marble decorations, and a larger sanctuary. The project, which took decades and was not fully completed until around 63–64 AD, made the temple a “snow-covered mountain” in Josephus’ description, a central hub for Jewish worship and pilgrimage.

• Other Building Projects: Herod constructed the port city of Caesarea Maritima, with its innovative harbor; the fortress-palace of Herodium; and the rebuilt city of Samaria (renamed Sebaste). He also built theaters, stadiums, and aqueducts, introducing Hellenistic architectural elements while respecting Jewish sensitivities (e.g., using aniconic coins without human images).

• Economic Prosperity: Herod stabilized Judea’s economy, reduced taxes in some periods, and encouraged trade, notably through Caesarea’s port. During a famine in 25 BC, he provided relief to his subjects, earning some goodwill.

• Cultural Patronage: Herod supported the Olympic Games and gifted lavish donations to Athens, enhancing Judea’s standing in the Mediterranean world. He also created a new priestly class, abolishing hereditary qualifications, and appointed loyalists to key religious posts, strengthening his control over Jewish institutions.

Challenges and Controversies

Despite these achievements, Herod’s reign was marred by distrust and opposition:

• Jewish Resentment: Many Jews viewed Herod as a foreign usurper due to his Idumean and Nabataean ancestry. His Roman allegiance and Hellenistic tendencies (e.g., building Greek-style theaters and placing a golden eagle on the temple gate) alienated orthodox Jews, who saw these as violations of Mosaic Law.

• Repression: Herod maintained a large personal guard (2,000 soldiers) and possibly a secret police to suppress dissent. He executed opponents ruthlessly, including Hasmonean rivals, and crushed rebellions with force.

• Roman Balancing Act: Herod’s loyalty to Rome required him to promote Roman culture while placating Jewish religious sensitivities. For example, he built the Augusteum, a temple honoring Augustus, but ensured the Jerusalem temple adhered to Jewish customs.

Family Life and Intrigues

Herod’s family was a source of both power and turmoil, marked by multiple marriages, numerous children, and deadly rivalries. He had ten wives and at least 14 children, with his sister Salome I playing a significant role in court intrigues. Below is a detailed account of his family members, based on Josephus and other sources.

Parents

• Antipater the Idumean (d. 43 BC): A wealthy and influential Edomite who converted to Judaism, Antipater served as a military commander under the Hasmoneans and later as procurator of Judea under Julius Caesar. His Roman connections paved the way for Herod’s rise.

• Cypros: A Nabataean princess from Petra, daughter of an Arab sheik, whose marriage to Antipater linked the family to the powerful Nabataean kingdom.

Siblings

Herod had four siblings:

1. Phasael (d. 40 BC): Herod’s older brother, appointed governor of Jerusalem by Antipater. He was captured and committed suicide during the Parthian invasion of 40 BC.

2. Joseph (d. unknown): Little is recorded about his role, but he held a Jewish name, indicating the family’s alignment with Judaism.

3. Pheroras (d. c. 5 BC): Governed territories east of the Jordan and was implicated in family conspiracies, including against Herod’s sons Alexander and Aristobulus.

4. Salome I (d. c. 10 AD): Herod’s sister, a key figure in court politics. She fueled Herod’s paranoia, particularly against his wife Mariamne, and was rewarded with a toparchy (Jabneh, Ashdod, and Phasaelis) after Herod’s death.

Wives and Children

Herod’s ten marriages were often strategic, aimed at consolidating power or securing alliances. Below is a list of his wives and known children, drawn from Josephus and other sources:

1. Doris (married c. 47 BC, sent away 37 BC, recalled 14 BC, sent away again c. 7/6 BC):

• Antipater (d. 4 BC): Herod’s eldest son, initially a favored heir but executed in 4 BC for alleged conspiracy against Herod.

2. Mariamne I (Hasmonean princess, married 37 BC, executed 29 BC): A political marriage to legitimize Herod’s rule by linking him to the Hasmonean dynasty. Herod was deeply attached to her but executed her due to jealousy and Salome’s accusations of infidelity.

• Alexander (d. 7 BC): Executed for alleged treason.

• Aristobulus (d. 7 BC): Executed for alleged treason; father of Herodias and Herod Agrippa I.

• Salampsio: A daughter, married to Phasael, son of Herod’s brother Pheroras.

• Cyprus: A daughter, married to Agrippa, son of Herod’s sister Salome.

• Unnamed son: Died young.

3. Unnamed Niece (married 37 BC): No recorded children.

4. Unnamed Cousin (married c. 34/33 BC): No recorded children.

5. Mariamne II (daughter of a Jerusalem priest, married 29/28 BC, divorced c. 7/6 BC):

• Herod (son, possibly Herod Philip, d. unknown): May have been the Herod Philip married to Herodias.

6. Malthace (Samaritan, married 28 BC, died c. 5/4 BC):

• Herod Archelaus (d. after 6 AD): Ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (4 BC–6 AD), deposed and exiled for incompetence.

• Herod Antipas (d. after 39 AD): Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (4 BC–39 AD), known for executing John the Baptist and involvement in Jesus’ trial. Exiled to Gaul after accusations of conspiracy.

• Olympias: A daughter, little recorded.

7. Cleopatra of Jerusalem (married 28 BC):

• Herod Philip (d. 34 AD): Tetrarch of Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis, and Panias (4 BC–34 AD). Married Salome, daughter of Herodias.

• Herod (son, little recorded).

8. Pallas (married 16 BC):

• Phasael: A son, little recorded.

9. Phadera (married c. 16 BC): No recorded children.

10. Elpis (married c. 16 BC): No recorded children.

Herod likely had additional children, especially daughters, as female births were often unrecorded. His total of 14 known children came from six of his ten wives.

Family Intrigues and Executions

Herod’s family life was plagued by paranoia and factionalism, exacerbated by his sister Salome I and his deteriorating mental health. Key incidents include:

• Mariamne I’s Execution (29 BC): Salome accused Mariamne of infidelity, leading Herod to execute her despite his love for her. This set a precedent for family purges.

• Execution of Sons (7–4 BC): Herod executed his sons Alexander and Aristobulus (by Mariamne I) in 7 BC and Antipater (by Doris) in 4 BC, suspecting them of plotting against him. These acts prompted Augustus’ famous quip, “It is better to be Herod’s pig than his son,” referencing Herod’s nominal adherence to Jewish dietary laws.

• Succession Crisis: Herod’s frequent changes to his will reflected his distrust. His final will divided his kingdom among his sons Archelaus (Judea, Samaria, Idumea), Antipas (Galilee, Perea), and Philip (northern territories), with Salome I receiving a toparchy. Augustus ratified this division but denied them the title of king, granting Archelaus ethnarch and the others tetrarchs.

Later Years and Death

By his final years, Herod suffered from severe health issues, likely Fournier’s gangrene or a cancer-like condition, causing gangrene, ulcers, convulsions, and intense pain. His mental instability worsened, fueling paranoia and brutal purges. In 4 BC, Herod died in his palace in Jericho, aged around 69. To ensure mourning, he reportedly ordered the execution of prominent figures upon his death, though this was not carried out. His body was buried at Herodium, in a tomb discovered in 2007.

Legacy and New Testament Context

Herod’s legacy is polarized:

• Positive Contributions: His building projects, especially the temple, left a lasting mark on Judea. The Western Wall remains a testament to his architectural vision. He brought relative peace and prosperity, exempted Jews from Roman military service, and protected Jewish religious practices to some extent.

• Negative Reputation: Herod’s brutality, including the execution of family members and suppression of dissent, earned him a tyrannical reputation. His Roman allegiance and Hellenistic leanings alienated many Jews, contributing to unrest that culminated in the Jewish-Roman War of 66–70 AD, when his temple was destroyed.

In the New Testament, Herod is infamous for the “Massacre of the Innocents” (Matthew 2:16-18), where he allegedly ordered the killing of boys under two in Bethlehem to eliminate the infant Jesus as a rival “King of the Jews.” Most historians, including Michael Grant and Peter Richardson, consider this event a literary device, possibly inspired by Herod’s execution of his own sons, as it lacks corroboration in Josephus or other sources.

Herod’s descendants continued his complex legacy:

• Herod Archelaus (ethnarch, 4 BC–6 AD): Ruled Judea poorly, leading to his exile and the establishment of direct Roman rule under prefects like Pontius Pilate.

• Herod Antipas (tetrarch, 4 BC–39 AD): Executed John the Baptist and was involved in Jesus’ trial (Luke 23:7-12). Exiled after accusations by his nephew Agrippa I.

• Herod Philip (tetrarch, 4 BC–34 AD): Ruled northern territories and married Salome, daughter of Herodias.

• Herod Agrippa I (king, 37–44 AD): Grandson via Aristobulus, ruled most of Herod’s former kingdom, persecuted early Christians (Acts 12).

• Herod Agrippa II (tetrarch, 50–c. 93 AD): Last Herodian ruler, heard Paul’s defense (Acts 25–26).

Conclusion

Herod the Great was a complex figure—a gifted administrator and builder whose temple and fortresses shaped Judea’s landscape, yet a paranoid tyrant whose reign was marked by cruelty and division. His Idumean-Nabataean origins and Roman allegiance made him an outsider to many Jews, despite his efforts to legitimize his rule through marriage and religious patronage. His family, with ten wives, 14 children, and scheming siblings like Salome I, was a microcosm of his reign’s intrigue and violence. Herod’s legacy endures in the architectural marvels he left behind and the enduring controversy of his rule, reflected in both Jewish and Christian narratives.