Herod the Great, born around 73 BC in Idumea (southern Judea), was a pivotal figure in the history of Judea, known for his ambitious building projects, political acumen, and controversial reign as a Roman client king. His life was marked by a delicate balancing act between his Jewish subjects, Roman overlords, and personal ambitions, set against a backdrop of family intrigue and brutal acts of power consolidation.
Herod was the second son of Antipater the Idumean and Cypros, a Nabataean princess from Petra (modern-day Jordan). His father, Antipater, was an Edomite (Idumean), a Semitic people who had been forcibly converted to Judaism by the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus I in the 2nd century BC. This conversion made Herod’s family nominally Jewish, but many native Jews viewed them as outsiders due to their Edomite origins and questionable adherence to Jewish law. Cypros, his mother, came from the wealthy and influential Nabataean kingdom, connecting Herod to Arab lineage. This dual heritage—Edomite and Nabataean—shaped Herod’s identity as a “half-Jew,” a status that fueled distrust among his Jewish subjects despite his claims to practice Judaism.
Herod had three brothers—Phasael, Joseph, and Pheroras—and one sister, Salome I. The family was aristocratic, with Antipater holding significant influence under the Hasmonean king Hyrcanus II. Two of Herod’s siblings, Joseph and Salome, bore Jewish names, reflecting the family’s attempt to align with Jewish identity. As a young man, Herod was described by Josephus as athletic, agile, tall, and strong, trained in soldierly pursuits, hunting, and horsemanship, befitting his elite status. An Essene prophet, Manaemos, reportedly predicted Herod’s future kingship during his youth, a prophecy that may have influenced his ambition.
Rise to Power
Herod’s political career began under his father’s patronage. Antipater, a skilled opportunist, aligned himself with Rome after Pompey’s conquest of Judea in 63 BC, securing Roman citizenship and the title of procurator of Judea from Julius Caesar in 47 BC. That same year, Antipater appointed the 26-year-old Herod as governor of Galilee, where he quickly demonstrated his administrative and military prowess by suppressing bandits and asserting control.
In 43 BC, Antipater was poisoned, likely due to political rivalries, leaving Herod and his brothers to navigate a turbulent Judea. The Hasmonean king Antigonus II Mattathias, backed by the Parthians (Rome’s eastern rivals), seized Jerusalem in 40 BC, forcing Herod to flee to Rome. There, he leveraged his family’s Roman connections, particularly with Mark Antony, to secure the Roman Senate’s nomination as “King of the Jews” in 40 BC. With Roman military support, Herod returned to Judea and, after a three-year campaign, captured Jerusalem in 37 BC, deposing Antigonus and solidifying his rule.
Herod’s alliance with Rome was tested during the Roman civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian (later Augustus). Initially loyal to Antony, Herod deftly switched allegiance to Octavian after Antony’s defeat at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In a bold meeting at Rhodes, Herod removed his crown, confessed his loyalty to Antony, and pledged even greater fidelity to Octavian. Impressed by his candor, Octavian confirmed Herod’s kingship, cementing a relationship that brought stability and territorial expansion to Judea.
Reign and Territory Controlled
Herod ruled Judea as a Roman client king from 37 BC until his death in 4 BC, overseeing a kingdom that, at its peak, was one of the most prosperous and expansive in the region. His reign was characterized by significant infrastructure development, diplomatic maneuvering, and internal challenges due to his non-Jewish origins and authoritarian methods.
Territorial Extent
Herod’s kingdom initially encompassed Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, but it expanded significantly through Roman grants:
• Core Territories (37 BC): Judea (including Jerusalem), Samaria, Idumea, and Galilee.
• 22–20 BC: Augustus expanded Herod’s domain to include parts of modern-day Jordan (east of the Jordan River), southern Lebanon, and Syria, such as Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis, and Panias. Herod was also granted oversight of the copper mines in Cyprus, receiving half the profits.
• Failed Ambitions: Herod hoped to acquire the Nabataean kingdom, but his deteriorating health and mental instability in later years made this impossible.
• Strategic Fortresses: To secure his realm, Herod built or reinforced fortresses like Masada, Herodium, Machaerus, Hyrcania, Cypros, Alexandrium, and Jericho, which served as defensive strongholds and symbols of his power.
By 20 BC, Herod’s kingdom rivaled the Hasmonean state at its height, covering most of modern Israel, parts of Jordan, and southern Lebanon and Syria. His control of these diverse regions required balancing the needs of Jewish, Samaritan, and non-Jewish populations, a task he managed through a blend of diplomacy, repression, and cultural patronage.
Major Achievements
Herod’s reign is renowned for its architectural and economic contributions:
• Rebuilding the Second Temple: Starting around 20–19 BC, Herod transformed Zerubbabel’s modest Second Temple into a magnificent complex, expanding the Temple Mount with massive retaining walls (including the Western Wall) and adding ornate courtyards, gold and marble decorations, and a larger sanctuary. The project, which took decades and was not fully completed until around 63–64 AD, made the temple a “snow-covered mountain” in Josephus’ description, a central hub for Jewish worship and pilgrimage.
• Other Building Projects: Herod constructed the port city of Caesarea Maritima, with its innovative harbor; the fortress-palace of Herodium; and the rebuilt city of Samaria (renamed Sebaste). He also built theaters, stadiums, and aqueducts, introducing Hellenistic architectural elements while respecting Jewish sensitivities (e.g., using aniconic coins without human images).
• Economic Prosperity: Herod stabilized Judea’s economy, reduced taxes in some periods, and encouraged trade, notably through Caesarea’s port. During a famine in 25 BC, he provided relief to his subjects, earning some goodwill.
• Cultural Patronage: Herod supported the Olympic Games and gifted lavish donations to Athens, enhancing Judea’s standing in the Mediterranean world. He also created a new priestly class, abolishing hereditary qualifications, and appointed loyalists to key religious posts, strengthening his control over Jewish institutions.
Challenges and Controversies
Despite these achievements, Herod’s reign was marred by distrust and opposition:
• Jewish Resentment: Many Jews viewed Herod as a foreign usurper due to his Idumean and Nabataean ancestry. His Roman allegiance and Hellenistic tendencies (e.g., building Greek-style theaters and placing a golden eagle on the temple gate) alienated orthodox Jews, who saw these as violations of Mosaic Law.
• Repression: Herod maintained a large personal guard (2,000 soldiers) and possibly a secret police to suppress dissent. He executed opponents ruthlessly, including Hasmonean rivals, and crushed rebellions with force.
• Roman Balancing Act: Herod’s loyalty to Rome required him to promote Roman culture while placating Jewish religious sensitivities. For example, he built the Augusteum, a temple honoring Augustus, but ensured the Jerusalem temple adhered to Jewish customs.
Family Life and Intrigues
Herod’s family was a source of both power and turmoil, marked by multiple marriages, numerous children, and deadly rivalries. He had ten wives and at least 14 children, with his sister Salome I playing a significant role in court intrigues. Below is a detailed account of his family members, based on Josephus and other sources.
Parents
• Antipater the Idumean (d. 43 BC): A wealthy and influential Edomite who converted to Judaism, Antipater served as a military commander under the Hasmoneans and later as procurator of Judea under Julius Caesar. His Roman connections paved the way for Herod’s rise.
• Cypros: A Nabataean princess from Petra, daughter of an Arab sheik, whose marriage to Antipater linked the family to the powerful Nabataean kingdom.
Siblings
Herod had four siblings:
1. Phasael (d. 40 BC): Herod’s older brother, appointed governor of Jerusalem by Antipater. He was captured and committed suicide during the Parthian invasion of 40 BC.
2. Joseph (d. unknown): Little is recorded about his role, but he held a Jewish name, indicating the family’s alignment with Judaism.
3. Pheroras (d. c. 5 BC): Governed territories east of the Jordan and was implicated in family conspiracies, including against Herod’s sons Alexander and Aristobulus.
4. Salome I (d. c. 10 AD): Herod’s sister, a key figure in court politics. She fueled Herod’s paranoia, particularly against his wife Mariamne, and was rewarded with a toparchy (Jabneh, Ashdod, and Phasaelis) after Herod’s death.
Wives and Children
Herod’s ten marriages were often strategic, aimed at consolidating power or securing alliances. Below is a list of his wives and known children, drawn from Josephus and other sources:
1. Doris (married c. 47 BC, sent away 37 BC, recalled 14 BC, sent away again c. 7/6 BC):
• Antipater (d. 4 BC): Herod’s eldest son, initially a favored heir but executed in 4 BC for alleged conspiracy against Herod.
2. Mariamne I (Hasmonean princess, married 37 BC, executed 29 BC): A political marriage to legitimize Herod’s rule by linking him to the Hasmonean dynasty. Herod was deeply attached to her but executed her due to jealousy and Salome’s accusations of infidelity.
• Alexander (d. 7 BC): Executed for alleged treason.
• Aristobulus (d. 7 BC): Executed for alleged treason; father of Herodias and Herod Agrippa I.
• Salampsio: A daughter, married to Phasael, son of Herod’s brother Pheroras.
• Cyprus: A daughter, married to Agrippa, son of Herod’s sister Salome.
• Unnamed son: Died young.
3. Unnamed Niece (married 37 BC): No recorded children.
4. Unnamed Cousin (married c. 34/33 BC): No recorded children.
5. Mariamne II (daughter of a Jerusalem priest, married 29/28 BC, divorced c. 7/6 BC):
• Herod (son, possibly Herod Philip, d. unknown): May have been the Herod Philip married to Herodias.
6. Malthace (Samaritan, married 28 BC, died c. 5/4 BC):
• Herod Archelaus (d. after 6 AD): Ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (4 BC–6 AD), deposed and exiled for incompetence.
• Herod Antipas (d. after 39 AD): Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea (4 BC–39 AD), known for executing John the Baptist and involvement in Jesus’ trial. Exiled to Gaul after accusations of conspiracy.
• Olympias: A daughter, little recorded.
7. Cleopatra of Jerusalem (married 28 BC):
• Herod Philip (d. 34 AD): Tetrarch of Iturea, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Gaulanitis, and Panias (4 BC–34 AD). Married Salome, daughter of Herodias.
• Herod (son, little recorded).
8. Pallas (married 16 BC):
• Phasael: A son, little recorded.
9. Phadera (married c. 16 BC): No recorded children.
10. Elpis (married c. 16 BC): No recorded children.
Herod likely had additional children, especially daughters, as female births were often unrecorded. His total of 14 known children came from six of his ten wives.
Family Intrigues and Executions
Herod’s family life was plagued by paranoia and factionalism, exacerbated by his sister Salome I and his deteriorating mental health. Key incidents include:
• Mariamne I’s Execution (29 BC): Salome accused Mariamne of infidelity, leading Herod to execute her despite his love for her. This set a precedent for family purges.
• Execution of Sons (7–4 BC): Herod executed his sons Alexander and Aristobulus (by Mariamne I) in 7 BC and Antipater (by Doris) in 4 BC, suspecting them of plotting against him. These acts prompted Augustus’ famous quip, “It is better to be Herod’s pig than his son,” referencing Herod’s nominal adherence to Jewish dietary laws.
• Succession Crisis: Herod’s frequent changes to his will reflected his distrust. His final will divided his kingdom among his sons Archelaus (Judea, Samaria, Idumea), Antipas (Galilee, Perea), and Philip (northern territories), with Salome I receiving a toparchy. Augustus ratified this division but denied them the title of king, granting Archelaus ethnarch and the others tetrarchs.
Later Years and Death
By his final years, Herod suffered from severe health issues, likely Fournier’s gangrene or a cancer-like condition, causing gangrene, ulcers, convulsions, and intense pain. His mental instability worsened, fueling paranoia and brutal purges. In 4 BC, Herod died in his palace in Jericho, aged around 69. To ensure mourning, he reportedly ordered the execution of prominent figures upon his death, though this was not carried out. His body was buried at Herodium, in a tomb discovered in 2007.
Legacy and New Testament Context
Herod’s legacy is polarized:
• Positive Contributions: His building projects, especially the temple, left a lasting mark on Judea. The Western Wall remains a testament to his architectural vision. He brought relative peace and prosperity, exempted Jews from Roman military service, and protected Jewish religious practices to some extent.
• Negative Reputation: Herod’s brutality, including the execution of family members and suppression of dissent, earned him a tyrannical reputation. His Roman allegiance and Hellenistic leanings alienated many Jews, contributing to unrest that culminated in the Jewish-Roman War of 66–70 AD, when his temple was destroyed.
In the New Testament, Herod is infamous for the “Massacre of the Innocents” (Matthew 2:16-18), where he allegedly ordered the killing of boys under two in Bethlehem to eliminate the infant Jesus as a rival “King of the Jews.” Most historians, including Michael Grant and Peter Richardson, consider this event a literary device, possibly inspired by Herod’s execution of his own sons, as it lacks corroboration in Josephus or other sources.
Herod’s descendants continued his complex legacy:
• Herod Archelaus (ethnarch, 4 BC–6 AD): Ruled Judea poorly, leading to his exile and the establishment of direct Roman rule under prefects like Pontius Pilate.
• Herod Antipas (tetrarch, 4 BC–39 AD): Executed John the Baptist and was involved in Jesus’ trial (Luke 23:7-12). Exiled after accusations by his nephew Agrippa I.
• Herod Philip (tetrarch, 4 BC–34 AD): Ruled northern territories and married Salome, daughter of Herodias.
• Herod Agrippa I (king, 37–44 AD): Grandson via Aristobulus, ruled most of Herod’s former kingdom, persecuted early Christians (Acts 12).
• Herod Agrippa II (tetrarch, 50–c. 93 AD): Last Herodian ruler, heard Paul’s defense (Acts 25–26).
Conclusion
Herod the Great was a complex figure—a gifted administrator and builder whose temple and fortresses shaped Judea’s landscape, yet a paranoid tyrant whose reign was marked by cruelty and division. His Idumean-Nabataean origins and Roman allegiance made him an outsider to many Jews, despite his efforts to legitimize his rule through marriage and religious patronage. His family, with ten wives, 14 children, and scheming siblings like Salome I, was a microcosm of his reign’s intrigue and violence. Herod’s legacy endures in the architectural marvels he left behind and the enduring controversy of his rule, reflected in both Jewish and Christian narratives.
